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SHELL BEADS : A *trade diaspora* is defined as a network of people who reside inforeign lands, acting to facilitate trade across-cultures. They can beviewed as the first anthropologists. Archeological evidence suggeststhat they first appeared very early in the history of civilization,being involved in the production of stone bowls and lapis beads duringthe sumerian period in the highlands of the iranian plateau, andpossibly in the indus watershed as well. The phenomenon is seen throughout history, all over the world;phoenician, greek, jewish, armenian, arab, rajistani, chinese, andmany more. There was a huge variation in how they functioned, from theprecarious position of jewish merchants in western europe or theportugese enclave at nagasaki to the imperialist/territorialestablishment of the dutch east indies, with every variationin-between. The american fur trade functioned largely on market principles,without significant (direct) coercion, much like the west africanexamples. You have mentioned something about a colonial campaign todestroy the indian bead-producing industry; can you elaborate? Fagan(among others) mentions the rapid replacement of traditional shellbeads by cheaper european glass beads, noting the difficulty ofdrilling holes in shell (even with iron augers and awls). The europeanbeads also had a greater variety of colors and designs, more uniformsizes, etc; a host of factors which give western beads a marketadvantage over traditional beads. You seem to be saying that this wasaugmented by some kind of attack on the coastal peoples who producedthe shell beads; can you be more specific?
SHELL BEADS : And, I should add, once the kettle was old and worn-out, the rawmaterials were recycled for other purposes. Many such remains havebeen found, often too worn to discern their original form or finalpurpose.Curtin also mentions the "substantivist" school of interpretation,based on the work of karl polanyi, which opposes the mainstream"formalist" school by emphasising the ways in which adaptation waschanneled by existing traditions, in contrast to the formal analysiswhich assumes a more utilitarian approach. Curtin acknowledges thevalidity of both systems, while advocating an avoidance of a stridentideological stance. Fagan shows an illustration of how a europeankettle was recycled, but emphasises that that this occured after itwas well-used.I'm not sure which edition it is, but I got it new last year, so it'sprobably the most recent.Here we return to the question of objectivity; steel is objectivelysuperior to stone for tools, for a host of various reasons. Stone isusable, of course, but steel is better. Look at the way neolithicpeople the world-over love machetes; it's not because they've beenbrainwashed by madison avenue ad campaigns. Steel just works better.
SHELL BEADS : Man does not live by wampum alone. I think you over-emphasise it.I don't think the inuit played much of a role, actually. As localsupplies were exhausted, in iroquois/huron territory, the beaver wereobtained from farther away. Hudson bay was actually in cree territory,but the demand for beaver reached farther west until it met therussian network coming east from the pacific. The best furs were foundat high latitude and altitude; the last beaver were scoured from therockies in the 1830's. Indians generally trapped, killed, and skinnedthe beaver, delivering the pelts either to other indian middlemen ordirectly to europeans. Many tribes participated. I believe theinhabitants of the rich wisconson forests were called assiniboine, andthe french contemplated a strategic alliance with the dakota sioux fora while.
SHELL BEADS : ------------Nonsense. Mankind, long before the written word, preserved itshistory by word of mouth. In the case of the Iroquois Confederacy, inaddition to oral tradition, wampum belts helped transmit their history &customs, the shells being woven into patterns. In fact, the reason thattheir "Great Law" was finally transcribed was the fear that the wampum beltswould be lost. And, as they had no written language of their own, it wastranscribed into English.-----------From the dictionary:Main Entry: wam·pumPronunciation: 'wäm-p&mFunction: nounEtymology: short for wampumpeagDate: 16361 : beads of polished shells strung in strands, belts, or sashes and used byNo. American Indians as money, ceremonial pledges, and ornaments2 : MoneyFrom the Encyclopedia Britannica: The terms wampum and wampumpeag wereinitially adopted by English settlers, who derived them from one of theeastern Algonquian languages; literally translated, wampumpeag means"strings of white (shell beads)."Before contact with white settlers, the Indians used wampum primarily forceremonial purposes, as a record of an important agreement or treaty, as anobject of tribute given by subject tribes, or for gift exchange (q.v.). Itsvalue derived from its ceremonial importance and the skill involved inmaking it. In the early 17th century wampum came to be used as money intrade between whites and Indians because of a shortage of European currency.When machines were invented in the mid-18th century for mass production ofwampum, the resulting inflation stopped its use as money in the easternUnited States. Western Indians, however, continued to use it commerciallyuntil the mid-19th century.
SHELL BEADS : And, finally:"After contact with North American natives in the early 1600s, Europeantraders and settlers used wampum beads as money. Denied (by their homegovernments) the gold and silver bullion needed to make coins, colonistsadopted indigenous shell beads as currency. Colonial legislatures set legalstandards of monetary value; for example, six white beads or two purplebeads to the penny. The Dutch introduced mass production of the beads usingsteel awls for faster drilling and whetstones for faster polishing. Nativesreportedly rejected mass-produced beads as inferior."------------Simply reading about the Iroquois Confederacy will tell you whothe "Six Nations" were. Though technically at the time the Europeans firstencountered them, they were the Five Nations: the Mohawks, Oneidas,Onondagas, Cayugas and the Senecas. The sixth Nation, Tuscaroras migratedfrom North Carolina to the New England area in the 1700s.
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